@article{doi:10.1139/facets-2015-0015,
author = {Näslund, Joacim and Pettersson, Leo and Johnsson, Jörgen I},
title = {Behavioural reactions of three-spined sticklebacks to simulated risk of predation—Effects of predator distance and movement},
journal = {FACETS},
volume = {1},
number = {},
pages = {55-66},
year = {2017},
doi = {10.1139/facets-2015-0015},

URL = { 
    
        https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2015-0015
    
    

},
eprint = { 
    
        https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2015-0015
    
    

}
,
    abstract = { The behavioural response of animals to predation risk commonly depends on the behaviour of potential predators. Here, we report an experiment investigating effects of predator model (a life-like wooden trout model) distance and movement on the behaviour of three-spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus L. in a standardized experimental setting. When the predator model was immobile, the behaviour of the sticklebacks could, in general, not be clearly distinguished from a no-predator control treatment. When moving the predator 41 cm towards the stickleback, clear anti-predator behaviours were observed. However, behavioural expression depended on the distance to the predator. At the two farthest distances (approaching from 129 to 88 cm and from 170 to 129 cm), the sticklebacks approached the predator and spent little time freezing. At the two closest distances (approaching from 88 to 47 cm and from 47 to 6 cm), the sticklebacks increased the distance to the predator model and froze their movements. These results suggest that the closest-distance groups showed avoidance behaviour, whereas the farthest-distance groups instead appeared to start inspecting the potential predator. This provides evidence for conditional anti-predator behaviour and highlights the importance of considering distance to, and movement of predator models when interpreting data from standardized behavioural trials. }
}

    @article {,
    author = {Barber I},
    author = {Walker P},
    author = {Svensson PA},
    title = {Behavioural responses to simulated avian predation in female three spined sticklebacks: The effect of experimental Schistocephalus solidus infections},
    journal = {Behaviour},
    volume = {141},
    pages = {1425},
    year = {2004}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Cerri RD},
    title = {The effect of light intensity on predator and prey behaviour in cyprinid fish: Factors that influence prey risk},
    journal = {Animal Behaviour},
    volume = {31},
    pages = {736},
    year = {1983}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Cooper WE},
    title = {Tradeoffs between predation risk and feeding in a lizard, the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps)},
    journal = {Behaviour},
    volume = {137},
    pages = {1175},
    year = {2000}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Dill LM},
    title = {The escape response of the zebra danio (Brachydanio rerio) I. The stimulus for escape},
    journal = {Animal Behaviour},
    volume = {22},
    pages = {711},
    year = {1974}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Dugatkin LA},
    author = {Godin J-GJ},
    title = {Prey approaching predators: A cost-benefit perspective},
    journal = {Annales Zoologici Fennici},
    volume = {29},
    pages = {233},
    year = {1992}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Fernö A},
    author = {Järvi T},
    title = {Domestication genetically alters the anti-predator behaviour of anadromous brown trout (Salmo trutta)—A dummy predator experiment},
    journal = {Nordic Journal of Freshwater Research},
    volume = {74},
    pages = {95},
    year = {1998}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Godin J-GJ},
    author = {Morgan MJ},
    title = {Predator avoidance and school size in a cyprinodontid fish, the banded killifish (Fundulus diaphanus Lesueur)},
    journal = {Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology},
    volume = {16},
    pages = {105},
    year = {1985}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Godin J-GJ},
    author = {Valdron Clark KA},
    title = {Risk-taking in stickleback fishes faced with different predatory threats},
    journal = {Écoscience},
    volume = {4},
    pages = {246},
    year = {1997}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Hoogland JL},
    title = {The evolution of coloniality in white-tailed and black-tailed prairie dogs (Sciuridae: Cynomys leucurus and C. ludovicianus)},
    journal = {Ecology},
    volume = {62},
    pages = {252},
    year = {1981}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Huntingford FA},
    title = {Some ethical issues raised by studies of predation and aggression},
    journal = {Animal Behaviour},
    volume = {32},
    pages = {210},
    year = {1984}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Jones KA},
    author = {Godin J-GJ},
    title = {Are fast explorers slow reactors? Linking personality type and anti-predator behaviour},
    journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B},
    volume = {277},
    pages = {625},
    year = {2010}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Karplus I},
    author = {Ben Tuvia S},
    title = {Warning signals of Cryptocentrus steinitzi (Pisces, Gobiidae) and predator models},
    journal = {Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie},
    volume = {51},
    pages = {225},
    year = {1979}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Karplus I},
    author = {Goren M},
    author = {Algom D},
    title = {A preliminary experimental analysis of predator face recognition by Chromis caeruleus (Pisces, Pomacentridae)},
    journal = {Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie},
    volume = {58},
    pages = {53},
    year = {1982}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Kruuk H},
    title = {Predators and anti-predator behaviour of the black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus L.)},
    journal = {Behaviour Supplement},
    volume = {11},
    pages = {1},
    year = {1964}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Lehtiniemi M},
    title = {Swim or hide: Predator cues cause species specific reactions in young fish larvae},
    journal = {Journal of Fish Biology},
    volume = {66},
    pages = {1285},
    year = {2005}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Lima SL},
    title = {Nonlethal effects in the ecology of predator-prey interactions},
    journal = {BioScience},
    volume = {48},
    pages = {25},
    year = {1998}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Lima SL},
    author = {Dill LM},
    title = {Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: A review and prospectus},
    journal = {Canadian Journal of Zoology},
    volume = {68},
    pages = {619},
    year = {1990}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Magurran AE},
    author = {Girling SL},
    title = {Predator model recognition and response habituation in shoaling minnows},
    journal = {Animal Behaviour},
    volume = {34},
    pages = {510},
    year = {1986}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Magurran AE},
    author = {Oulton W},
    author = {Pitcher TJ},
    title = {Vigilant behaviour and shoal size in minnows},
    journal = {Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie},
    volume = {67},
    pages = {167},
    year = {1985}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Martel G},
    author = {Dill LM},
    title = {Influence of movement by coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) parr on their detection by common mergansers (Mergus merganser)},
    journal = {Ethology},
    volume = {99},
    pages = {139},
    year = {1995}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {McGhee KE},
    author = {Pintor LM},
    author = {Bell AM},
    title = {Reciprocal behavioral plasticity and behavioral types during predator-prey interactions},
    journal = {The American Naturalist},
    volume = {182},
    pages = {704},
    year = {2013}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Metcalfe NB},
    author = {Huntingford FA},
    author = {Thorpe JE},
    title = {The influence of predation risk on the feeding motivation and foraging strategy of juvenile Atlantic salmon},
    journal = {Animal Behaviour},
    volume = {35},
    pages = {901},
    year = {1987}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Näslund J},
    author = {Lindström E},
    author = {Lai F},
    author = {Jutfelt F},
    title = {Behavioural responses to simulated bird attacks in marine three-spined sticklebacks after exposure to high CO2 levels},
    journal = {Marine and Freshwater Research},
    volume = {66},
    pages = {877},
    year = {2015}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Nishiumi N},
    author = {Mori A},
    title = {Distance-dependent switching of anti-predator behavior of frogs from immobility to fleeing},
    journal = {Journal of Ethology},
    volume = {33},
    pages = {117},
    year = {2015}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Pitcher T},
    title = {Who dares, wins: The function and evolution of predator inspection behaviour in shoaling fish},
    journal = {Netherlands Journal of Zoology},
    volume = {42},
    pages = {371},
    year = {1991}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Pitcher TJ},
    author = {Green DA},
    author = {Magurran AE},
    title = {Dicing with death: Predator inspection behaviour in minnow shoals},
    journal = {Journal of Fish Biology},
    volume = {28},
    pages = {439},
    year = {1986}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Shalter MD},
    title = {Effect of spatial context on the mobbing reaction of pied flycatchers to a predator model},
    journal = {Animal Behaviour},
    volume = {26},
    pages = {1219},
    year = {1978}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Stankowich T},
    author = {Blumstein DT},
    title = {Fear in animals: A meta-analysis and review of risk assessment},
    journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B},
    volume = {272},
    pages = {2627},
    year = {2005}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Stankowich T},
    author = {Coss RG},
    title = {Effects of predator behaviour and proximity on risk assessment by Columbian black-tailed deer},
    journal = {Behavioral Ecology},
    volume = {17},
    pages = {246},
    year = {2006}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Tulley JJ},
    author = {Huntingford FA},
    title = {Additional information on the relationship between intra-specific aggression and anti-predator behaviour in the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus},
    journal = {Ethology},
    volume = {78},
    pages = {219},
    year = {1988}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {van der Bijl W},
    author = {Thyselius M},
    author = {Kotrschal A},
    author = {Kolm N},
    title = {Brain size affects the behavioural response to predators in female guppies (Poecilia reticulata)},
    journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B},
    volume = {282},
    pages = {20151132},
    year = {2015}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Wolf NG},
    title = {Odd fish abandon mixed-species groups when threatened},
    journal = {Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology},
    volume = {17},
    pages = {47},
    year = {1985}
    }

    @article {,
    author = {Ydenberg RC},
    author = {Dill LM},
    title = {The economics of fleeing from predators},
    journal = {Advances in the Study of Behavior},
    volume = {16},
    pages = {229},
    year = {1986}
    }