Co-design of water services and infrastructure for Indigenous Canada: A scoping review
Abstract
Background
Co-design defined
The research gap and its importance
Study context
Approach and methodology
Search term(s) | Synonyms |
---|---|
Water | Drinking water OR water quality OR potable water OR healthy water OR drinkable water OR drink water OR drink OR safe water OR water OR suitable water OR palatable water OR edible water OR tap water OR fresh water OR water supply OR source water OR raw water OR wastewater OR waste water |
Indigenous communities | Indigenous people OR Indigenous OR Aborigine OR Aboriginal OR Indigenous community OR Native(s) OR Indigen* OR Indigenous people OR First Nations OR Métis OR Inuit OR Inuk |
Co-design | Co-design OR collective creativity OR co-creation OR empathetic design OR user-centered design OR participatory design OR Value sensitive design |
Infrastructure | Infrastructure OR system OR building OR structure OR treatment plant OR plant OR piped distribution system OR water pipe(s) OR water system OR cistern OR tank |
Canada | Canada OR North America |
Water AND Indigenous Communities AND Co-design AND Canada | — |
Water AND Indigenous Communities AND Co-design AND Canada AND Infrastructure | — |
Results
Design | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Article ID | Reference | Topic | Site(s) | Method | Data type | Response rate | Summary of relevant findings | Limitations |
Canada | ||||||||
A | Horning et al. (2016) | Social network analysis of watershed planning and water governance configurations in Canada | Similkameen Valley and Kettle River, British Columbia | Case study | Primary data using semi-structured survey | Two networks explored; n = 59 80% response rate, and n = 54 69% response rate | Both case networks demonstrated that collaboration is not supported. Centralized power brokers exist resulting in power asymmetry. In Similkameen, a small number of First Nations actors provide key bridging services. Missing links to industry and federal levels of government hinder policy progress. | Two case studies in one province, not longitudinal |
B | Halbe et al. (2015) | Roles of paradigms in engineering practice with particular attention to “community involvement” | Flood case study: Hungary; education case studies McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada and University of Osnabrueck, Germany | Case Study | Primary, qualitative data; two cases: one on flood management, one on incorporating new paradigms into university-level engineering pedagogy | — | Application of solutions from one paradigm only is not enough to address the multiple aspects of sustainability problems. Both engineering and local community members have difficulty acknowledging the value of each other’s paradigm. Teaching paradigms in engineering education could sensitize engineers to the value of diversity leading to “integrated management” paradigm. | Cases only in Westernized Nations (Hungary, Germany, Canada), small sample. |
C | McCullough and Farahbakhsh (2015) | Refocusing the lens: drinking water success in First Nations in Ontario | First Nations in northern and southern Ontario that were stratified across remote and accessible areas | Qualitative interviewing: grounded constructivist approach | Primary data | 16 from snowball, stratified sample; recruited at a technical tradeshow in Toronto, Ontario, Canada | Locally driven actions enhanced First Nations pride, capacity, and OCAP principles. Better infrastructure achieved through sidestepping Federal programs and processes to attain a desired goal. Satisfaction due to reduced bureaucracy. | No inclusion of negative findings. Single province examined |
D | White and Leblanc (2015) | Report on initial improvement to water and wastewater systems in 2013–2014 in Pikangikum First Nation, northern Ontario | Pikangikum First Nation, Ontario | Case report | Primary qualitative data | n = 10 family dwellings that had received piped water systems | Community members should be included in water infrastructure projects to build capacity, enhance health outcomes, and enhancement to water systems improve other issues in remote reserve communities through interconnectedness of water, health, energy, and social services. | Small sample, remote community, singular event |
E | McCullough and Farahbakhsh (2012) | First Nations drinking water infrastructure policy, and its translation, and action areas for reserves | 16 First Nation reserves across Ontario | Case study | Primary qualitative data (interviews) | n = 13 interviews with 16 First Nations technical practitioners recruited voluntarily from trade-show | INAC accountability to external agents restricts its ability on technical challenges. INAC perceived as gatekeepers dominated by macro- and micro-control measures with no flexibility and too much frugality. Federal control interferes with accommodating diversity among First Nations. Northern FN’s have limited capacity to execute a major capital works process, and retention of technical stuff is poor. Northern communities have more challenging construction logistics. Engineers and workers not equipped to coordinate direct involvement of community leadership and navigate social structures of remote communities. INAC inflexible and incompatible with the diversity of First Nation communities—sharply contrasting INAC’s mandate. | Small sample size, one province, not representative. Lack of comparable research to draw from. |
F | Simeone (2010) | Reviews roles, responsibilities and progress of federal, provincial, territorial and First Nations governments for safe drinking water on reserves up to May 2010 | Federal, provincial, territorial, and local policy landscape | Content review and gap analysis | Secondary data | N/A | Water infrastructure on reserves is obsolete, absent, inadequate, or of low quality. Reserve communities have no mechanism to provide input on regulations. The focus of the federal government is on legislation, however, making legislation while infrastructure is inadequate to meet current requirements is questionable. | Data sparse. Poor consultation Failure to consider cultural dimensions of First Nations water use in legislation. Gap analysis found no pathways forward |
G | Smith et al. (2006) | Public health evaluation of drinking water systems in First Nation communities in Alberta, Canada | 56 treatment plants in Alberta First Nations | Risk analysis site evaluation survey | Survey conducted with environmental health officer and water treatment plant operator: Primary data; mixed quantitative and qualitative | n = 56 systems | The process of design for small water treatment plants limited by funding. Systems are not user-funded and are constrained by the agencies who make decisions, reinforcing hierarchies. Needs to be locally determined and culturally relevant water sources, monitoring and treatment programs, and addressing of cultural, political, social, and economic environment | Conservative approach to questionable situations in the study |
H | AANDC (2010a, 2011, 2012, 2013) | Investment reports and national assessment of the federal government infrastructure development for First Nations water on reserves | First Nations across Canada | Government reporting | Includes background, enforceable standards, protocols, investments, and evaluations of systems across Canada | n = 3 | Annual report on water and wastewater infrastructure highlights success stories and lists spending on projects. The partnerships are defined as financial support from the government with First Nations planning submitted for approval | Does not provide a definition for design or descriptions for design process |
I | AANDC (2010b) | Design Guidelines for First Nations Water Works: policy statements and appendices | — | Content Analysis of Policy statements | — | N/A | Plans for engineers to carry out successful design of water and wastewater infrastructure. It focuses on meeting technical standards for operation. | Lacks a component for community consultation |
Global | ||||||||
J | Ambole et al. (2016) | Designing for informal contexts: a case study of Enkanini sanitation intervention | Western Cape, South Africa | Case study | Participant observation and cross-case synthesisprimary data | n = 3 cases; 2 snap-shots, 1 longitudinal | Inclusivity and human-centered design are concerns in design fields, especially for vulnerable populations. Capacity to participate and social pressures interfere with creativity and agency. Generative methods of co-design such as design ethnography allow for engaging transdisciplinary success. Socio-technological reciprocity approach allows reduction in power asymmetries. A co-design sanitation system was implemented, but social system to support the infrastructure failed due to poor communications, and reflection by team. | Singe lase study, convenience sampling. No comparative research available. |
K | Tinoco et al. (2014) | Literature review, project reports, and field studies in Nicaragua | Nicaragua and Caribbean coasts | Meta-review and participatory action research in six communities | — | n = 185 articles; 100 project reports; and stakeholder dialogue, transect walks, focus groups, interviews and mapping in six communities | Poor socio-cultural understanding of water and sanitation interventions abound. There is rejection of infrastructure and non-functioning solutions due to clashes with cultural preferences and local relevant knowledge. Results in inactive management organizations, and incomplete infrastructure installation. Lack of capacity to integrate Indigenous worldviews exists among designers. Wasted investments because facilities are not used/fall into disrepair | Field study limited to one country. Participatory, but no Indigenous methodology. |
L | Jiménez et al. (2014) | Review of water and sanitation services across global Indigenous populations | Global | Meta-review | Secondary data; 185 articles | N/A | Analyses of power struggles and conflict appear often, while legislation and institutions, though increasing in their acknowledgment of the rights of Indigenous people, are failing at practice. Differences in values for water and health contribute to disparities. Indigenous participation in planning processes is increasing, however need more tools to facilitate. Awareness needs to increase. Researchers need to find processes that respect both the requirements of the external agents, and local structures and workflows. | Sample over-represented by political ecology papers focusing on conflicts. Literature lacking in success stories. Omitted large selection of articles on TEK. Few papers from Africa because of Indigenous-Colonial reversal |
M | Murcott (2007) | Co-evolutionary design for development: influences on engineering design and implement | Nepal | Case study | Study of household water filter co-development and experimental testing in Nepal to develop a 10-step framework for co-evolutionary development project | — | Co-development and experimental testing had four positive effects: increased public awareness of the problems, enhanced local entrepreneurship, innovation due to constraints of local material availability, and economic development. Other benefits included enhanced networking, empowerment of women, and better water. | Tech requires instruction or is dismissed thus experts need to be available. Small sample, unsustainable funding and no diversified funding sources, no long-term data. |
Note: INAC, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada.
Overview of selected studies
Study characteristics
Descriptive summaries of study characteristics
Characteristic | Number (n = 13) | Percentage (%) | Article IDa |
---|---|---|---|
Publication year | |||
2006–2011 | 4 | 31 | F, G, I, M |
2012–February 2017 | 9 | 69 | A–E, J–L |
Publication type | |||
Journal article | 10 | 77 | A–G, K–M |
Thesis or academic report | 1 | 8 | J |
Technical report | 2 | 15 | H, I |
Level of participation | |||
Inform | 2 | 15 | B, G |
Consult | 2 | 15 | C, E |
Involve | 2 | 15 | A, K |
Collaborate | 3 | 23 | D, M, J |
Empower | 0 | 0 | — |
None | 4 | 31 | F, H, I, L |
Indigenous community | |||
First Nations | 6 | 75 | A, C, D, E, G, H |
Other | 4 | 13 | J, K, L, M |
None | 3 | 13 | B, F, I |
Definition | |||
Design | 3 | 23 | B, J, M |
Co-design | 3 | 23 | B, J, M |
Both | 3 | 23 | B, J, M |
None | 10 | 77 | A, C–G, H, I, K, L |
Reported methods
Methodological characteristic | Number (n = 13) | Percentage (%) | Article IDa |
---|---|---|---|
Research design | |||
Participatory research | 2 | 15 | C, G |
Case study | 6 | 46 | A, B, D, E, J, M |
Meta-review | 3 | 23 | F, K, L |
Report | 2 | 15 | H, I |
Research data | |||
Primary data | 8 | 62 | A–E, G, J, M |
Secondary data | 3 | 23 | F, K, L |
Not reported | 2 | 15 | H, I |
Study type | |||
Quantitative | 1 | 8 | A |
Qualitative | 7 | 54 | B, C, D, E, J, K, M |
Mixed | 2 | 15 | G, L |
N/A | 3 | 23 | F, H, I |
Participatory process | |||
Survey | 1 | 8 | A |
Education | 1 | 8 | B |
Interview | 3 | 23 | C, E, K |
Working Group | 3 | 23 | D, M, J |
None | 5 | 38 | F, G, L, H, I |
Reported data collection approach
Methodological limitations
Thematic analysis and study findings
State of water infrastructure and design on First Nations
Co-design processes presented
Challenges to evolving the design process/merging paradigms
Discussion
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
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