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  • OPEN ACCESS
    Science should not be left behind during the design of a marine protected area: meeting conservation priorities while integrating stakeholder interests
    FACETS • Vol. 4 • No. 1 • pp. 472 - 492
    Marine protected areas (MPAs) design is a complex process that typically involves diverse stakeholders, requiring compromise between diverging priorities. Such compromises, when not carefully understood, can threaten the ecological effectiveness of MPAs. Using the example of the Canadian Laurentian Channel MPA, we studied a planning process from initial scientific advice to the final MPA. We analysed the impacts of successive boundary modifications to the draft MPA, often made to accommodate extractive industries, on the protection of seven species initially identified as potential conservation priorities. We also quantified the potential economic impacts of changes in boundary modifications on the fisheries industry. Results show that reducing the proposed MPA size by 33.4% helped reduce the potential economic impact on the fishing industry by 65.5%, but it resulted in up to 43% decrease in protection of species of conservation priority. Changes in MPA boundary delineation during the design were not subjected to formal scientific reviews, raising questions on the potential effectiveness of this MPA. Better integration of science in MPA design is required to help assess the impacts that trade-offs made during stakeholder consultations can have on the MPA ecological effectiveness.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Channel geomorphology differences between stream reaches with grass- or tree-dominated riparian vegetation in southern Manitoba
    FACETS • Vol. 4 • No. 1 • pp. 336 - 349
    Removal of trees for pasture or crop production is common along the stream reaches in the Canadian Prairies, resulting in a patchwork of forested and nonforest riparian vegetation along most streams. The effect of vegetation type on channel geomorphology and potential to influence sediment dynamics was studied using eight paired reaches (forested and nonforest) within agricultural watersheds in southern Manitoba, Canada. High potential for bank erosion was observed at all sites (bank erosion hazard index scores), but Pfankuch channel stability scores were significantly higher for forested reaches compared with nonforested reaches. Furthermore, forested reaches had higher width to depth ratios, but flood-prone widths did not differ significantly, resulting in lower entrenchment ratios. Reduced channel width and cross-sectional area in nonforested reaches created an overall reduction of in-stream habitat, increased velocity, and increased potential for exceedance of channel capacity and floodplain access during high-flow events. Channel widening in response to riparian afforestation efforts has been observed in a variety of other locations globally and the results of this study suggest that widening with afforestation can still be anticipated in this region where stream gradients are low, hydrology is dominated by snowmelt, and forest cover is minimal.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Recommended best practices for plastic and litter ingestion studies in marine birds: Collection, processing, and reporting
    FACETS • Vol. 4 • No. 1 • pp. 111 - 130
    Marine plastic pollution is an environmental contaminant of significant concern. There is a lack of consistency in sample collection and processing that continues to impede meta-analyses and large-scale comparisons across time and space. This is true for most taxa, including seabirds, which are the most studied megafauna group with regards to plastic ingestion research. Consequently, it is difficult to evaluate the impacts and extent of plastic contamination in seabirds fully and accurately, and to make inferences about species for which we have little or no data. We provide a synthesized set of recommendations specific for seabirds and plastic ingestion studies that include best practices in relation to sample collection, processing, and reporting, as well as highlighting some “cross-cutting” methods. We include guidance for how carcasses, regurgitations, and pellets should be handled and treated to prevent cross-contamination, and a discussion of what size class of microplastics can be assessed in each sample type. Although we focus on marine bird samples, we also include standardized techniques to remove sediment and biological material that are generalizable to other taxa. Lastly, metrics and data presentation of ingested plastics are briefly reviewed in the context of seabird studies.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Muted responses to Ag accumulation by plankton to chronic and pulse exposure to silver nanoparticles in a boreal lake
    FACETS • Vol. 4 • No. 1 • pp. 566 - 583
    Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are an emerging class of contaminants with the potential to impact ecosystem structure and function. AgNPs are antimicrobial, suggesting that microbe-driven ecosystem functions may be particularly vulnerable to AgNP exposure. Predicting the environmental impacts of AgNPs requires in situ investigation of environmentally relevant dosing regimens over time scales that allow for ecosystem-level responses. We used 3000 L enclosures installed in a boreal lake to expose plankton communities to chronic and pulse AgNP dosing regimens with concentrations mimicking those recorded in natural waters. We compared temporal patterns of plankton responses, Ag accumulation, and ecosystem metabolism (i.e., daily ecosystem respiration, gross primary production, and net ecosystem production) for 6 weeks of chronic dosing and 3 weeks following a pulsed dose. Ag accumulated in microplankton and zooplankton, but carbon-specific Ag was nonlinear over time and generally did not predict plankton response. Ecosystem metabolism did not respond to either AgNP exposure type. This lack of response corresponded with weak microplankton responses in the chronic treatments but did not reflect the stronger microplankton response in the pulse treatment. Our results suggest that lake ecosystem metabolism is somewhat resistant to environmentally relevant concentrations of AgNPs and that organismal responses do not necessarily predict ecosystem-level responses.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Exploring community-based marine aquaculture as a coastal resource management opportunity in Nova Scotia, Canada
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 26 - 48
    Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest growing food production sectors and presents an opportunity for rural community development that can support coastal livelihoods. An ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA) has been recommended to facilitate socially and environmentally sustainable development, yet there remains a need to better involve people in planning and operational aspects. Community-based management may help to implement principles of the EAA; however, context-specific research is needed to understand its potential application and suitability. This research explores opportunities for community-based marine aquaculture (CBMA) for nonfinfish in the context of Nova Scotia, Canada, through a series of stakeholder interviews. Results suggest that all stakeholder groups interviewed were positive about the potential for CBMA to support sustainable aquaculture growth in the province; however, key questions around operationalizing CBMA remain. The aquaculture industry is on a continual path for growth worldwide and, therefore, it becomes increasingly important to proactively examine strategies such as CBMA that can help to facilitate EAA in a way that genuinely puts people at the centre of aquaculture development and governance.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    The effects of hydrogen peroxide on mortality, escape response, and oxygen consumption of Calanus spp.
    FACETS • Vol. 4 • No. 1 • pp. 626 - 637
    Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a pesticide used in salmonid aquaculture, is released directly into the environment where nontarget organisms are at risk of exposure. We determined threshold concentrations for mortality of Calanus spp., the dominant zooplankton species in the North Atlantic, and assessed sublethal effects, focusing on the escape response and oxygen consumption rates (OCRs) as behavioral and physiological assays. One-hour exposure to 170 mg·L−1 (i.e., 10% of the recommended H2O2 treatment) was lethal to copepodite stage V (92% mortality) and adult females (100% mortality). The acute median lethal concentration (1h-LC50) was 214.1 (150.67–277.4) and 48.6 (44.9–52.2) mg·L−1 for copepodite V and adults, respectively. The 25-h LC50 was 77.1 (57.9–96.2) and 30.63 (25.4–35.8) mg·L−1 for copepodite V and adults, respectively. At concentrations of 0.5% and 1% of the recommended treatment level, Calanus spp. showed a decrease in escape performance and lower OCRs with increased concentration. At H2O2 concentrations of 5% of the recommended treatment levels (85 mg·L−1), exposed copepods showed no escape reaction response. These results suggest that sublethal concentrations of H2O2 will increase the risk of predation for Calanus spp. Furthermore, this study provides supporting evidence that theoretical “safe” values, traditionally used for predicting toxicity thresholds, underestimate the impact of H2O2 on the physiological condition of nontarget crustaceans.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Correction: Impacts of hypoxia on estuarine macroinvertebrate assemblages across a regional nutrient gradient
    FACETS • Vol. 4 • No. 1 • pp. 161
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Differing marine animal biomass shifts under 21st century climate change between Canada’s three oceans
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 105 - 122
    Under climate change, species composition and abundances in high-latitude waters are expected to substantially reconfigure with consequences for trophic relationships and ecosystem services. Outcomes are challenging to project at national scales, despite their importance for management decisions. Using an ensemble of six global marine ecosystem models we analyzed marine ecosystem responses to climate change from 1971 to 2099 in Canada’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under four standardized emissions scenarios. By 2099, under business-as-usual emissions (RCP8.5) projected marine animal biomass declined by an average of −7.7% (±29.5%) within the Canadian EEZ, dominated by declines in the Pacific (−24% ± 24.5%) and Atlantic (−25.5% ± 9.5%) areas; these were partially compensated by increases in the Canadian Arctic (+26.2% ± 38.4%). Lower emissions scenarios projected successively smaller biomass changes, highlighting the benefits of stronger mitigation targets. Individual model projections were most consistent in the Atlantic and Pacific, but highly variable in the Arctic due to model uncertainties in polar regions. Different trajectories of future marine biomass changes will require regional-specific responses in conservation and management strategies, such as adaptive planning of marine protected areas and species-specific management plans, to enhance resilience and rebuilding of Canada’s marine ecosystems and commercial fish stocks.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    A first assessment of microplastics and other anthropogenic particles in Hudson Bay and the surrounding eastern Canadian Arctic waters of Nunavut
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 432 - 454
    Microplastics are a globally ubiquitous contaminant, invading the most remote regions, including the Arctic. To date, our understanding of the distribution and sources of microplastics in the Arctic is limited but growing. This study aims to advance our understanding of microplastics in the Arctic. Surface water, zooplankton, sediment, and snow samples were collected from Hudson Bay to north Baffin Bay onboard the CCGS Amundsen from July to August 2017. Samples were examined for microplastics, which were chemically identified via Raman spectroscopy for surface water and zooplankton and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for sediment. We found that 90% of surface water and zooplankton samples, and 85% of sediment samples, contained microplastics or other anthropogenic particles. Mean anthropogenic particle concentrations, which includes microplastics, were 0.22 ± 0.23 (per litre) for surface water, 3.51 ± 4.00 (per gram) for zooplankton, and 1.94 ± 4.12 (per gram) for sediment. These concentrations were not related to the human populations upstream, suggesting that microplastic contamination in the Arctic is from long-range transport. Overall, this study highlights the presence of microplastics across the eastern Canadian Arctic, in multiple media, and offers evidence of long-range transport via ocean and atmospheric currents. Further research is needed to better understand sources, distribution, and effects to Arctic ecosystems.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Can the toxicity of naphthenic acids in oil sands process-affected water be mitigated by a green photocatalytic method?
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 474 - 487
    Our study evaluates the efficacy of a “green” (i.e., sustainable, recyclable, and reusable) technology to treat waste waters produced by Canada’s oil sands industry. We examined the ability of a novel advanced oxidative method—ultra-violet photocatalysis over titanium dioxide (TiO2)-coated microparticles—to reduce the toxicity of naphthenic acid fraction components (NAFC) to early life stages of the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Lengthening the duration of photocatalysis resulted in greater removal of NAFC from bioassay exposure waters; low- and high-intensity treatments reduced NAFC concentrations to about 20 and 3 mg/L (by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, FTIR), respectively. Treatments reduced the acute lethality of NAFC to fathead minnows by over half after low-intensity treatment and three-fold after high-intensity treatment. However, incomplete degradation in low-intensity treatments increased the incidence of chronic toxicity relative to untreated NAFC solutions and cardiovascular abnormalities were common even with >80% of NAFC degraded. Our findings demonstrate that photocatalysis over TiO2 microparticles is a promising method for mitigating the toxicity of oil sands process-affected water-derived NAFC to fish native to the oil sands region, but the intensity of the photocatalytic treatment needs to be considered carefully to ensure adequate mineralization of toxic constituents.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Fluctuating water levels influence access to critical habitats for threatened Cowichan Lake lamprey
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 488 - 502
    Cowichan Lake lamprey (Entosphenus macrostomus) is a threatened species resident to Mesachie Lake, Cowichan Lake, and adjoining Bear Lake and their major tributaries in British Columbia. Decreases in trapping success have created concerns that the population is declining. Some potential threats include water use, climate change, and management actions. Owing to the absence of long-term data on population trends, little information is available to estimate habitat quality and factors that influence it. We sought to fill this gap by examining associations between habitat area and variables representing suspected key drivers of habitat availability. Critical habitat areas were imaged using an unmanned aerial vehicle over a period of three years at three sites at Cowichan Lake and a subsequent habitat area was classified. Meteorological and anthropogenic controls on habitat area were investigated through automatic relevance detection regression models. The major driver of habitat area during the critical spawning period was water level during the storage season, which also depends on the meteorological variables and anthropogenic control. It is recommended that regulation of the weir should aim to ensure that the water level remains above the 1 m mark, which roughly equates to the 67% coverage of water on the habitat area used for spawning.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Is the cure worse than the disease? Comparing the ecological effects of an invasive aquatic plant and the herbicide treatments used to control it
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 353 - 366
    Invasive species are known to have negative ecological effects. However, few studies have evaluated the impacts of invasive species relative to the effects of invasive species control, thereby limiting our ability to make informed decisions considering the benefits and drawbacks of a given management approach. To address this gap, we compared the ecological effects of the invasive aquatic plant Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) with the effects of lake-wide herbicide treatments used for M. spicatum control using aquatic plant data collected from 173 lakes in Wisconsin, USA. First, a pre–post analysis of aquatic plant communities found significant declines in native plant species in response to lake-wide herbicide treatment. Second, multi-level modeling using a large data set revealed a negative association between lake-wide herbicide treatments and native aquatic plants, but no significant negative effect of invasive M. spicatum. Taken together, our results indicate that lake-wide herbicide treatments aimed at controlling M. spicatum had larger effects on native aquatic plants than did the target of control—invasive M. spicatum. Our comparison reveals an important management tradeoff and encourages careful consideration of how we balance the real and perceived impacts of invasive species and the methods used for their control.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    From coast to coast to coast: ecology and management of seagrass ecosystems across Canada
    FACETS • Vol. 6 • pp. 139 - 179
    Seagrass meadows are among the most productive and diverse marine ecosystems, providing essential structure, functions, and services. They are also among the most impacted by human activities and in urgent need of better management and protection. In Canada, eelgrass (Zostera marina) meadows are found along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic coasts, and thus occur across a wide range of biogeographic conditions. Here, we synthesize knowledge of eelgrass ecosystems across Canada’s coasts, highlighting commonalities and differences in environmental conditions, plant, habitat, and community structure, as well as current trends and human impacts. Across regions, eelgrass life history, phenology, and general species assemblages are similar. However, distinct regional differences occur in environmental conditions, particularly with water temperature and nutrient availability. There is considerable variation in the types and strengths of human activities among regions. The impacts of coastal development are prevalent in all regions, while other impacts are of concern for specific regions, e.g., nutrient loading in the Atlantic and impacts from the logging industry in the Pacific. In addition, climate change represents a growing threat to eelgrass meadows. We review current management and conservation efforts and discuss the implications of observed differences from coast to coast to coast.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Extreme rainfall drives early onset cyanobacterial bloom
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 899 - 920
    The increasing prevalence of cyanobacteria-dominated harmful algal blooms is strongly associated with nutrient loading and changing climatic patterns. Changes to precipitation frequency and intensity, as predicted by current climate models, are likely to affect bloom development and composition through changes in nutrient fluxes and water column mixing. However, few studies have directly documented the effects of extreme precipitation events on cyanobacterial composition, biomass, and toxin production. We tracked changes in a eutrophic reservoir following an extreme precipitation event, describing an atypically early toxin-producing cyanobacterial bloom and successional progression of the phytoplankton community, toxins, and geochemistry. An increase in bioavailable phosphorus by more than 27-fold in surface waters preceded notable increases in Aphanizomenon flos-aquae throughout the reservoir approximately 2 weeks postevent and ∼5 weeks before blooms typically occur. Anabaenopeptin-A and three microcystin congeners (microcystin-LR, -YR, and -RR) were detected at varying levels across sites during the bloom period, which lasted between 3 and 5 weeks. These findings suggest extreme rainfall can trigger early cyanobacterial bloom initiation, effectively elongating the bloom season period of potential toxicity. However, effects will vary depending on factors including the timing of rainfall and reservoir physical structure.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Comparing metabarcoding and morphological approaches to identify phytoplankton taxa associated with harmful algal blooms
    FACETS • Vol. 5 • No. 1 • pp. 784 - 811
    Molecular techniques are expected to be highly useful in detecting taxa causing harmful algal blooms (HABs). This is the first report in Canada evaluating HABs-related species identification using a combination of morphological and molecular approaches. Microscopy, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and metabarcoding with multiple markers (i.e., 16S, 18S-dinoflagellate and 18S-diatom, large subunit (28S) rDNA) were applied on samples (n = 54) containing suspected harmful algae (e.g., Alexandrium spp., Chattonella sp., Chrysochromulina spp., Dictyocha spp., Heterosigma akashiwo, Protoceratium reticulatum, Pseudochattonella verruculosa, Pseudo-nitzschia spp., Pseudopedinella sp.). Owing to methodology limitations, qPCR result interpretation was limited, although good detectability occurred using previously published assays for Alexandrium tamarense, H. akashiwo, and P. verruculosa. Overall, the multiple-marker metabarcoding results were superior to the morphology-based methods, with the exception of taxa from the silicoflagellate group. The combined results using both 18S markers and the 28S marker together closely corresponded with morphological identification of targeted species, providing the best overall taxonomic coverage and resolution. The most numerous unique taxa were identified using the 18S-dinoflagellate amplicon, and the best resolution to the species level occurred using the 28S amplicon. Molecular techniques are therefore promising for HABs taxa detection but currently depend on deploying multiple markers for metabarcoding.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Thermal sensitivity and flow-mediated migratory delays drive climate risk for coastal sockeye salmon
    FACETS • Vol. 6 • pp. 71 - 89
    Climate change is subjecting aquatic species to increasing temperatures and shifting hydrologic conditions. Understanding how these changes affect individual survival can help guide conservation and management actions. Anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in some large river systems are acutely impacted by the river temperatures and flows encountered during their spawning migrations. However, comparatively little is known about drivers of en route mortality for salmon in smaller coastal watersheds, and climate impacts may differ across watersheds and locally adapted salmon populations. To understand the effects of climate on the survival of coastal sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka; hísn in Haíɫzaqv), we tagged 1785 individual fish with passive integrated transponders across four migration seasons in the Koeye River—a low-elevation watershed in coastal British Columbia—and tracked them during their relatively short migration (∼13 km) from river entry to spawning grounds. Overall, 64.7% of sockeye survived to enter the spawning grounds, and survival decreased rapidly when water temperatures exceeded 15 °C. The best-fitting model included an interaction between river flow and temperature, such that temperature effects were worse when flows were low, and river entry ceased at the lowest flows. Results revealed temperature-mediated mortality and migration delays from low water that may synergistically reduce survival among sockeye salmon returning to coastal watersheds.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Visualizations as a tool to increase community engagement in climate change adaptation decision-making
    FACETS • Vol. 6 • pp. 240 - 251
    Many barriers to behavioural change exist when it comes to climate change action. A key element to overcoming some of these barriers is effective communication of complex scientific information. The use of visualizations, such as photographs or interactive maps, can increase knowledge dissemination, helping community members understand climatic and environmental changes. These techniques have been utilized in many disciplines but have not been widely embraced by climate change scholars. This paper discusses the utility of climate change data visualization as a tool for climate change knowledge mobilization. This paper draws on the case studying drivers of coastline change of Lake Ontario in the Town of Lincoln, Ontario, Canada. Historical aerial photographs were used to measure the rate of coastline change and visualize vulnerable sections of the coast. To better visualize the changes that occurred over time from a resident viewpoint, selected land-based historical photographs were replicated by taking new photographs at the same locations. These visualization tools can be useful to support the community in developing strategies to adapt to climate change by increasing understanding of the changes and knowledge through social learning. These tools can be generalized to other case studies dealing with community engagement in coastal adaptation efforts.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Time to refine mercury mass balance models for fish
    FACETS • Vol. 6 • pp. 272 - 286
    Mercury mass balance models (MMBMs) for fish are powerful tools for understanding factors affecting growth and food consumption by free-ranging fish in rivers, lakes, and oceans. Moreover, MMBMs can be used to predict the consequences of global mercury reductions, overfishing, and climate change on mercury (Hg) concentration in commercially and recreationally valuable species of fish. Such predictions are useful in decision-making by resource managers and public health policy makers, because mercury is a neurotoxin and the primary route of exposure of mercury to humans is via consumption of fish. Recent evidence has emerged to indicate that the current-day version of MMBMs overestimates the rate at which fish eliminate mercury from their bodies. Consequently, MMBMs overestimate food consumption by fish and underestimate Hg concentration in fish. In this perspective, we explore underlying reasons for this overestimation of Hg-elimination rate, as well as consequences and implications of this overestimation. We highlight emerging studies that distinguish species and sex as contributing factors, in addition to body weight and water temperature, that can play an important role in how quickly Hg is eliminated from fish. Future research directions for refining MMBMs are discussed.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Identifying and monitoring of forage fish spawning beaches in British Columbia’s Salish Sea for conservation of forage fish
    FACETS • Vol. 6 • pp. 1024 - 1043
    Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes personatus) and surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) are ecologically important forage fish in the marine food webs within the Salish Sea, including British Columbia (BC). Although important, little information exists around the spatiotemporal distribution of these fishes’ beach spawning habitat in the BC Salish Sea. In 2017, the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region Research Institute initiated spawning beach surveys within the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (MABR). Surveys have geographically expanded along the eastern Vancouver Island coastline between Bowser and Cowichan Bay, BC, including Gabriola Island and Thetis Island. Pacific sand lance embryos have been detected at 17 beaches, with six beaches located within the MABR. Pacific sand lance spawning events have been detected between November and mid-February, with the bulk of embryos detected in November and December. To date, surf smelt embryos have not been detected at the 56 different beaches. These data begin to fill existing data gaps surrounding Pacific sand lance and surf smelt in BC. Furthermore, longer-term data submissions to the Strait of Georgia Data Centre, an open-access database, will provide the necessary data needed to advocate for improved regulatory protections for these ecologically important fish and their spawning habitat.
  • OPEN ACCESS
    Combining high-resolution remotely sensed data with local and Indigenous Knowledge to model the landscape suitability of culturally modified trees: biocultural stewardship in Kitasoo/Xai’xais Territory
    FACETS • Vol. 6 • pp. 465 - 489
    Environmental management and monitoring must reconcile social and cultural objectives with biodiversity stewardship to overcome political barriers to conservation. Suitability modelling offers a powerful tool for such “biocultural” approaches, but examples remain rare. Led by the Stewardship Authority of the Kitasoo/Xai’xais First Nation in coastal British Columbia, Canada, we developed a locally informed suitability model for a key biocultural indicator, culturally modified trees (CMTs). CMTs are trees bearing evidence of past cultural use that are valued as tangible markers of Indigenous heritage and protected under provincial law. Using a spatial multi-criteria evaluation framework to predict CMT suitability, we developed two cultural predictor variables informed by Kitasoo/Xai’xais cultural expertise and ethnographic data in addition to six biophysical variables derived from LiDAR and photo interpretation data. Both cultural predictor variables were highly influential in our model, revealing that proximity to known habitation sites and accessibility to harvesters (by canoe and foot) more strongly influenced suitability for CMTs compared with site-level conditions. Applying our model to commercial forestry governance, we found that high CMT suitability areas are 51% greater inside the timber harvesting land base than outside. This work highlights how locally led suitability modelling can improve the social and evidentiary dimensions of environmental management.